In the research paper “Self-Defense Militias in the Sahel: From Fighting Jihadists to Dismantling Society and the State,” researcher Mohammed Mahmoud Abu al-Ma’ali reveals how local militias that emerged in Sahelian African countries as “popular protection forces” have turned into one of the most dangerous factors in the disintegration of societies and states in the region. The paper, published by the Al Jazeera Center for Studies, does not view these groups merely as auxiliary armed formations for armies, but rather as an expression of the collapse of the state itself, its inability to monopolize violence, and the transformation of the war against jihadist groups into open ethnic and tribal conflicts.

The researcher argues that many of these militias started under the slogan of “protecting villages and populations” from attacks by armed groups, but ended up producing parallel violence, sometimes even more brutal, based on collective vengeance and ethnic cleansing, directly contributing to fueling jihadist groups instead of weakening them.

The Sahel: When the State Fails and Local Arms Rise

The study starts from the general environment that allowed these militias to emerge. Sahelian countries, especially Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso, have experienced a rapid decline in state presence in peripheral and rural areas over the last two decades. Armies are weak, government administrations are nearly absent, borders are porous, while jihadist groups expand, exploiting poverty, marginalization, and ethnic divisions.

In this vacuum, “self-defense” militias emerged as a quick and low-cost solution for governments. Instead of sending exhausted armies to remote areas, local populations were armed and pushed to fight against jihadist groups. However, the problem, as the researcher explains, is that these formations were not built on national or legal foundations, but on tribal and ethnic affiliations, which quickly turned them into tools of collective revenge.

Therefore, Abu al-Ma’ali sees that the war in the Sahel has not remained a confrontation between a “state” and “jihadists,” but has turned into a complex network of overlapping wars: tribes against tribes, herders against farmers, and ethnic groups exchanging massacres under the banner of counter-terrorism.

Militias were established in Africa to confront jihadist groups in many of these countries

Mali: The Beginning That Turned into a Bloody Model

The researcher believes that Mali was the first arena to witness this transformation early on. In the 1990s, the Malian state supported the “Kondo Koy” militias from the Songhai ethnicity under the slogan of protecting the population from the Tuareg and Arab rebellion in the north of the country. But these groups soon adopted a sharp ethnic rhetoric and began carrying out attacks against Tuareg and Arab villages, considering them a “breeding ground for rebellion.”

Abu al-Ma’ali points out that this experience established an entire pattern of ethnic militias that later spread across the Sahel. After “Kondo Koy,” the more extreme and violent “Kondo Ezo” emerged, then the Tuareg tribes themselves entered the militia game by forming “Gatia,” supported by the Malian army, gradually turning the war into a conflict within the Tuareg community itself, between the Imghad, Ifoghas, and their allies.

What is striking in the study is that these groups, despite their different affiliations, share the same logic: each group views the other as a “human reservoir” for the enemy, not just a political or military opponent. Therefore, the village becomes a legitimate target, and civilians become part of the war, not outside it.

The Fulani: The Group That Paid the Highest Price

One of the things the study clarifies most is that the Fulani ethnic group was the most targeted collectively in recent Sahel conflicts. With the rising influence of groups like “Macina Liberation Front” and “Sahel Province,” many opponents of the Fulani began to view all their communities as a breeding ground for jihadists.

Here, the war turned into a vicious cycle: militias attack Fulani villages under the pretext of counter-terrorism, jihadist groups exploit the massacres to recruit more Fulani youth as “protection,” and then governments use this recruitment as a

Sahel

Sahel refers to a vast semi-arid region in Africa that stretches across the continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea, acting as a transitional zone between the Sahara Desert to the north and the savannas to the south. Historically, it was home to powerful medieval empires like Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, which thrived on trans-Saharan trade routes. Today, the Sahel faces significant challenges, including desertification, climate change, and political instability, while preserving rich cultural traditions.

Mali

Mali is a West African country with a rich history as the heart of the powerful Mali Empire, which flourished from the 13th to 16th centuries under rulers like Mansa Musa, renowned for his wealth and the promotion of Islamic scholarship. The country is home to iconic cultural sites such as Timbuktu and Djenné, which were major centers of trade, learning, and architecture, featuring landmarks like the Great Mosque of Djenné—the world’s largest mud-brick structure. Despite modern challenges including conflict and poverty, Mali’s heritage remains a testament to its profound influence on African history and culture.

Niger

Niger is a vast, landlocked country in West Africa, historically home to powerful empires like the Songhai Empire and later a key part of the trans-Saharan trade routes. Colonized by France in the late 19th century, it gained independence in 1960. Today, Niger is known for its rich cultural diversity, the ancient city of Agadez, and the stunning Sahara Desert landscapes, including the Aïr Mountains.

Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso is a landlocked country in West Africa known for its rich cultural heritage and vibrant traditions, including music and dance. Formerly called Upper Volta, it gained independence from France in 1960 and was renamed in 1984 to mean “Land of Upright People.” Despite facing political instability and security challenges in recent years, the country is home to historic sites like the Ruins of Loropéni, a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Kondo Koy

Kondo Koy is a historic cultural site in the Fergana Valley of Uzbekistan, known for its ancient settlement dating back to the early medieval period. It served as a key stop along the Silk Road, facilitating trade and cultural exchange between East and West. The site features remnants of fortifications and structures that reflect the region’s rich history as a crossroads of civilizations.

Kondo Ezo

Kondo Ezo appears to be a lesser-known or possibly fictional place, as no widely recognized historical or cultural site by that name exists in major records. If you are referring to a specific location or concept, such as a variant of “Ezo” (the historical Japanese name for Hokkaido) or a personal name, please provide additional context for an accurate summary.

Gatia

Gatia is a village in the Larnaca District of Cyprus, known for its historical significance as a settlement dating back to the Neolithic period. Archaeological excavations have uncovered artifacts from the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages, indicating continuous habitation for thousands of years. Today, it is a quiet rural area that preserves remnants of its ancient past, including tombs and pottery.

Macina Liberation Front

The Macina Liberation Front (FLM) is a jihadist militant group active primarily in central Mali, founded in 2015 by Hamadoun Kouffa, a former preacher. It emerged from the broader Tuareg-led rebellion and the rise of Islamist militancy in the Sahel, with the goal of imposing strict Sharia law and fighting the Malian government and its allies. The group draws its name from the historic Macina Empire, a 19th-century Islamic state in the region, and has been linked to al-Qaeda affiliates.