Searching for Origins: The Threefold Division of Arabs Between Historical Narrative and Cultural Identity

The question of origins and affiliations has long been a central theme in the writings of Arab historians and genealogists throughout the ages. Amidst this quest to define identities, the theory of Semitic origins emerged, attempting to unite the peoples of the region under a single relative umbrella, tracing back to the biblical figure of Noah and his son Shem. Despite the mythical nature of some aspects of this theory, it formed an important referential framework for understanding the internal divisions among the peoples who inhabited the Levant and the fringes of the Arabian Peninsula.

From within this framework emerged the well-known threefold division of Arabs, distinguishing between three categories: the Extinct Arabs (al-Ba’ida), the Pure Arabs (al-‘Ariba), and the Arabized Arabs (al-Musta’riba). This classification relies not only on temporal criteria reflecting the relative antiquity of each group but extends to linguistic, cultural, and civilizational standards, which together formed the evolving fabric of Arab identity over thousands of years.

Historians divided the Arabs into three layers: the extinct who vanished before Islam, like ‘Ad and Thamud; the pure, who are the original Arabs, namely the Qahtani Yemenis; and the arabized, who learned Arabic, namely the Adnani descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham, forming the fundamental division of historical Arab identity.

The Semitic Peoples: The Broader Theoretical Framework

Historical studies indicate that the idea of « Semitic peoples » was an early attempt to classify human groups sharing similar linguistic characteristics. This concept expanded to include the civilizations of Mesopotamia, the Levant, and the Arabian Peninsula. A prominent outcome of this classification was linking these peoples through their languages, which show similarities in vocabulary and grammatical structures, suggesting an ancient common origin.

Historical sources mention that these peoples branched out and spread from a central region, likely the Arabian Peninsula or Iraq, to establish multiple civilizations across the area. The Babylonians and Assyrians settled in Mesopotamia, the Phoenicians built their cities on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, the Hebrews inhabited the land of Canaan, and the Abyssinians moved towards the Horn of Africa. As for the Arabs, their main center remained in the Arabian Peninsula, with scattered expansions towards the peripheries.

The Extinct Arabs: Civilizations Lost Before Islam

The Extinct Arabs constitute the oldest layer in the threefold division, representing the human groups that inhabited the Arabian Peninsula and adjacent areas, whose civilizations later perished and who vanished before the dawn of Islam. Historical sources mention names of tribes and peoples such as ‘Ad, Thamud, Jadis, ‘Abil, and Jurhum as examples of these groups.

The mention of these tribes in the ancient Arab imagination is associated with tales of moral lessons and destruction, often linking their demise to their tyranny and rejection of the messages of prophets sent to them. Inscriptions and discovered artifacts in areas like Al-Hijr in northern Arabia point to the existence of advanced civilizations of these peoples, distinguished by rock-cut architecture and complex irrigation systems.

Modern researchers

Arabs

« Arabs » refers broadly to a major ethnolinguistic group originating in the Arabian Peninsula, whose history and culture have been profoundly shaped by the 7th-century rise of Islam and the subsequent Arab expansions. This created a vast cultural sphere across the Middle East and North Africa, where the Arabic language, Islamic traditions, and shared historical narratives became unifying forces. Today, Arab identity connects diverse peoples across numerous nations, united by a common linguistic and cultural heritage.

Semitic peoples

« Semitic peoples » is not a single place or cultural site, but a term for a large, ancient family of ethnic and linguistic groups originating in the Middle East. Historically, they include civilizations such as the Akkadians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, and Arabs, whose languages and cultures have profoundly shaped the region for millennia. Today, the term is most commonly associated with Jewish and Arab peoples, as well as their shared and distinct historical legacies.

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia, located in the modern-day Middle East between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, is widely regarded as the « cradle of civilization. » It was home to some of the world’s earliest cities and empires, such as Sumer, Akkad, and Babylon, which pioneered writing (cuneiform), law codes, and advanced agriculture. Its history spans from the rise of the first settlements around 10,000 BCE to its conquest by the Persian Empire in the 6th century BCE.

Levant

The Levant is a historical and geographical region in the Eastern Mediterranean, encompassing modern-day countries such as Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, and Palestine. It is one of the world’s oldest centers of civilization, famously home to the ancient Phoenician city-states and a crucial crossroads for trade and cultural exchange for millennia. Its history is deeply layered, from the Bronze Age Canaanites to being part of numerous empires, including the Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman.

Arabian Peninsula

The Arabian Peninsula is a vast region in Southwest Asia, historically defined by its arid desert interior and its crucial role as a crossroads for ancient trade routes, including the famed incense trade. It is the birthplace of Islam in the 7th century CE, with the cities of Mecca and Medina serving as the religion’s spiritual heartlands, and is home to the modern nations of Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, and others.

Babylonians

The Babylonians were an ancient Mesopotamian civilization centered in the city of Babylon, which flourished as a major political and cultural hub, most famously under King Hammurabi (c. 1792–1750 BCE) and later the Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 605–562 BCE). They are renowned for monumental achievements such as the Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest written legal codes, and architectural wonders like the Ishtar Gate and the legendary Hanging Gardens. Their history is marked by periods of great empire-building, profound contributions to astronomy, mathematics, and literature, and eventual conquest by the Persian Empire in 539 BCE.

Assyrians

The Assyrians were an ancient Mesopotamian civilization originating in northern Iraq, known for their formidable empire centered at cities like Nineveh and Ashur, which peaked around the 7th century BCE. They are remembered for military innovation, monumental architecture like lamassu sculptures, and one of the world’s earliest library collections under King Ashurbanipal. Today, « Assyrians » also refers to a distinct ethnic and Christian religious community, descendants of the ancient empire, who maintain Aramaic-language traditions and have a global diaspora.

Phoenicians

The Phoenicians were an ancient seafaring civilization originating from the eastern Mediterranean coast (modern-day Lebanon, Syria, and Israel) around 2500 BCE. They are best known for establishing a vast trade network across the Mediterranean, founding influential colonies like Carthage, and creating the Phoenician alphabet, which became the basis for many modern writing systems. Their culture and influence began to decline after conquests by successive empires, including the Persians and Alexander the Great.